Honey Bee Products

Background

The science and art of managing honey bees called apiculture or beekeeping is a centuries-old tradition. The first beekeepers were hunters, seek-ing out wild nests of honey bees, which often were destroyed to obtain the sweet reward, called honey,for which these insects are named. As interest in honey bees grew, so too did the entomological and biological knowledge needed to better manage colonies of  Apis mellifera. The innovations that allowed modern beekeeping to arise were primar-ily developed in the 19th century. The most impor-tant include the moveable-frame hive, smoker and centrifugal extractor. It is remarkable that these continue to be the hallmark of the beekeeper a century and a half later (Capinera, 2008). Beekeeping can also generate associated industries such as the manufacture of beekeeping equipment, including bee hives, smokers and protective clothing. Bees and/or pollination services are also traded and may be very valuable. It is mainly bees of the genus Apis that produce significant quantities of honey and beeswax. Some stingless bees, from the subfamily Meliponini, are also exploited for honey.  This honey is highly valued for its medicinal properties.

Objective

To know about the status of bee keeping and bee products.

To know the importance of bee products and its economic benefit.

Methodology

This term paper was prepared by consulting different books, journals, article and papers. I used to go to library to get reference about the topic of bee products. The downloaded version of encyclopedias also greatly helped in compiling this paper. Other PDF files downloaded from internet also helped me much.

Introduction

Apiculture provides some of the world's poorest people with the opportunity to enhance their income from the practical and often indigenous skills of beekeeping. The best known products harvested from bees are honey and beeswax  and selling honey and beeswax offers the best business opportunities for small scale beekeepers in developing countries. However, other bee products such as propolis, pollen, bee venom and royal jelly are also harvested in some countries.  With an increasing interest in natural ingredients and a growing understanding of the medicinal value and uses of bee products, the demand for these products is expanding. There is new interest worldwide in the therapeutic values of honey and propolis.

There are many ways to add greater value to bee products, such as producing candles or cosmetics, so it is possible to develop opportunities for small business enterprises. Adding value to bee products also leads to diversified incomes and more sustainable livelihoods for vulnerable people in developing countries, while increasing the availability of natural, healthy and medicinal products for local and international consumers. Value added items can be made by people who are not beekeepers, and may create a special opportunity for women to profit from their traditional skills.

 (Marieke Mutsaers, 2005) Honey bees live in colonies. The worker bees in the colony collect various substances in nature, which their colony uses, for example to feed the adult bees and make the colony grow, as nesting material or to protect the colony. By collecting from the vegetation the bees also have an impact on the vegetation: cross-polination leads to better fructification and to seed formation by flowers that produce fruits or seeds. 

Raw materials and the bee colony

 Bees gather substances from the vegetation, add substances to them, process them and allow them to ripen. These then serve as raw mate-rials for other bee products. With the help of specialised organs and glands, the raw materials are trans-formed into new, very different products. Figure 1 is a schematic drawing of the location of products in the beehive. When we speak of a beehive, we are referring to both the bees and the whole nest.  Bees collect substances from the vegetation and process these in the hive.

Since bees do everything together and pass the collected substances on to each other, called trophallaxis, substances from the bees’ own saliva, stomach fluids and gland secretions are continually added. All bee products also contain small amounts of other bee products. As a result, bee products can be made up of hundreds of different substances.

Figure 1: Location of products in a beehive

 

 

Honey

 

(Wenning, 1999) Honey is liquid sugar made from the nectar of flowers that is used by both honey bees and man as food. Honey has antibacterial qualities; it is often claimed that eating local honey can help fend off allergies. More than 200 million pounds of honey are produced in the United States annually, with an equal amount being imported for human consumption. Honey is consumed in many forms:

• extracted honey -- liquid honey; honey that has been extracted from the combs

• comb honey -- honey that is in the comb

• chunk honey -- honey that consists of a piece of comb honey immersed in extracted honey

• creamed honey -- finely crystallized honey

 

(Marieke Mutsaers, 2005)Honey originating from a single flower species is called monofloral honey, such as kapok honey, banana honey or coffee honey. If the nectar of more than one species is collected, then it is called multifloral or polyfloral honey.  Nectar contains a minimal amount of pollen, which can also be detected in the honey. Pollen is present on the anthers of all plants from which bees collect nectar.  Only small traces of pollen are found in ‘modern’ honey.  By observing pollen under a microscope, it is possible to identify its plant family, genus and species. 

Honey is a valuable product often used as a foodstuff by humans. It is an energy rich, easily digestible foodstuff that people understand and enjoy. Because of this, it is especially valuable for children and the elderly or people who are sick and may have lost their appetite. A nourishing recipe is honey mixed into a porridge made of maize meal and ground peanuts. Honey has also significant medicinal properties and use. In many countries it is essential for use with traditional and herbal medicines, and there is now increasing interest in the use of honey in conventional medicine. Honey is valuable for burns and wounds and will help healing, especially leg ulcers, bed sores and other festering sores, and reducing the smell from advanced fungating cancers because of its antibiotic and debriding effect. It can be used to alleviate conjunctivitis - two drops will dissolve in the fluid of the eye and act as an antibiotic. It will also relieve sore throats, constipation, coughs and colds and gastritis.

Beeswax

 

Beeswax is one of nature's amazing materials. Pure beeswax from Apis mellifera contains at least 300 different compounds being a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, a variety of esters and free acids. Human societies have long valued beeswax. Despite the use of cheaper petroleum based waxes, beeswax remains the most versatile bee product. It is used for a range of industrial processes, for instance as an ingredient in many cosmetics, ointments and pharmaceutical preparations. It is important in batik and other textile work and central in certain metal casting and modeling processes, as well as wax foundation for beehives and in candle making.  No candle is more beautiful nor has a more delicious aroma than a lustrous candle made from pure, golden beeswax. (Wenning, 1999). A substance made from six wax glands on the underside of the abdomen of a worker bee used to make comb; man most commonly uses wax in candle making and art. It also is used by humans in drugs, cosmetics, and furniture polish

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF BEESWAX

(Vincent H. Resh, 2003)The major components of A. mellifera beeswax include monoesters, diesters, hydrocarbons, and free acids, which together make up more than half the total weight. Over 200 minor components have also been identified. Of the physical properties of beeswax, its thermal properties are of special practical importance, particularly the wide temperature range between its becoming plastic (32°C) and melting (61–66°C). Its relative density at 15 to 25°C is 0.96 and its refractive index at 75°C is 1.44. Many pesticides used to control mites in the hive can contaminate beeswax.

Wax in beekeeping and honey production 

(Marieke Mutsaers, 2005)The most important use of beeswax is in beekeeping itself, namely for the production of artificial combs. Artificial comb foundation is made of moulded or pressed wax sheets with cells imprinted on them that the bees very quickly and economically (using very little honey) build into comb. A surplus of beeswax can be found mainly in countries where artificial comb foundation is not used. New wax is much cleaner than old, melted combs. Beeswax, both from new and old comb, is edible but not digestible. If you eat comb honey you ingest a very small amount of wax, less than 2 to 3% of the honey's weight. Comb honey is therefore produced only in new comb. Honey from older combs or from built-up artificial combs does not taste as good.  In countries where traditional beekeeping is practised, people often eat honey in and from all types of comb. This gives the honey a strong membrane taste.

Propolis

(Vincent H. Resh, 2003)Propolis is the material that honey bees and some other bees can collect from living plants, which they use alone or with beeswax in the construction and adaptation of their nests. Most of the plant sources are trees and bushes. The material collected may be a wound exudate (resin and latex) or a secretion (lipophilic substances, mucilage, and gum). Propolis thus has a much more varied origin than any other material collected by honey bees. Analyses of various samples (mostly of unknown plant origin) have shown the presence of over 100 compounds, including especially flavonoids. A bee that collects propolis carries it back to the nest on her hind legs. She goes to a place in the hive where propolis is being used and remains there until her load is taken from her by bees using it. The propolis is mainly collected in the morning and used in the hive in the afternoon. Where propolis is available,  A. mellifera uses it for stopping up cracks, restricting the dimensions of its flight entrance, and other minor building works. Observations on both tropical and temperate-zone A. cerana indicate that this species does not collect or use propolis, even in a region where A. mellifera does, but uses beeswax instead. Propolis is sometimes used by A. dorsata to strengthen the attachment of the comb to its supporting branch. It is probably essential to A. florea for protecting its nest from ants. These bees build Bee Products 83two rings of sticky propolis round the branch that supports the nest, one at each end of the comb attachment, and may “freshen” the propolis surface so that it remains sticky and ants cannot cross it. To collect propolis from a hive, the beekeeper inserts a contrivance, such as a flat horizontal grid having slits 2–3 mm wide that will stimulate the bees to close up the gaps with propolis. On removal from the hive, the contrivance is cooled in a freezer. The propolis then becomes brittle, and a sharp blow fractures it off in pieces, which can be stored for up to a year in a plastic bag. The total commercial world production of propolis may be between 100 and 200 tons a year. China produces more propolis (from hives of introduced  A. mellifera) than any other country; some South American countries are next in importance. Most importing countries are in Europe. Propolis has various pharmacological properties, partly from its flavonoid content. It is used in cosmetic and healing creams, throat pastilles, and chewing gum. A few people (in the United Kingdom about one beekeeper in 2000), are allergic (hypersensitive) to propolis, and contact with it leads to dermatitis. Stingless bees mix much propolis with the wax they secrete before they use it in nest construction; the mixture is called cerumen.

The bees collect propolis by biting off scraps of the plant resin and packing them into the pollen baskets on their hind legs. Because it is so sticky propolis gathering is a slow business. It is only collected when the temperature is above 18°C and each bee can only carry about 20mg in one journey. Sometimes bees collect man-made materials of similar consistency such as road tar or varnish.

Propolis is a very stable substance, variable in color and composed of resins, waxes, volatile oils, pollen, vitamins, minerals and plant chemicals especially concentrated flavonoids, which are active plant-derived essential oils that are thought to be mainly responsible for the therapeutic properties of propolis. Over 180 distinct compounds have been identified in propolis with researchers expecting to find more.

Honeybees use propolis to keep their homes dry, cosy and hygienic. The propolis coating makes the walls of their nesting place waterproof and draught­-proof. Propolis is used to seal up any cracks or gaps where micro-organisms could flourish and to decrease the size of nest entrances, which makes them smooth for passing bee traffic and easier to defend from intruders. A thin layer is used to varnish inside brood cells before the queen lays eggs into them. This provides a strong, hygienic unit for developing larvae while the volatile oils in propolis serve as a kind of antiseptic air-freshener.

Venom

To defend their nests and honey stores against many potential enemies honeybees have developed elaborate defense mechanisms involving pheromones. The most notable of these is the honeybee's sting. The sting apparatus (and to a lesser extent the mandibular glands) produce alarm pheromone that stimulate the stinging response and arouse other worker bees to sting the intruder.

The main component of the alarm pheromone is iso-pentyl acetate which has a sweet smell rather like banana oil and is stored in a specially evolved 'venom sac' located close to the sting shaft. Honeybees store a maximum of 0.5mg of venom during their lifetime.

Commercially-produced venom is used medicinally for desensitization of allergic individuals, treating a range of chronic diseases notably the rheumatic diseases and multiple sclerosis and for other forms of apitherapy.

(Marieke Mutsaers, 2005)In traditional medicine in Africa finely ground bees were used as a salve or tea to combat various diseases including rheumatism. People also had themselves stung on specific places on their body.   Bee venom is used in various ways: it is inhaled, eaten in the form of bee venom honey, injected in the form of injection fluid or applied on the skin as a salve.  It is also applied by being stung, either on its own or in combination with electrotherapy, acupuncture or acupressure. This is very painful and it can be dangerous. In China and Japan only the removed stinger is used as a needle on acupuncture points.  This is felt by the patient, but it is not painful. A minimal amount of bee venom is naturally present in honey. It is of course also present in the mother tincture Apis, which is used in ho-meopathy and natural medicine.

Venom is collected from honeybees using an electrically charged grid with a thin synthetic material (such as taffeta or clear plastic food wrap) stretched over it. The grid sits on an integral glass plate. This apparatus is placed at the bottom of the beehive. When bees alight on it they receive a slight electric shock causing them to sting through the material leaving a deposit of venom smeared on the glass plate. The dried venom is scraped off the plate and the underside of the fabric with a razor blade and then rapidly freeze-dried for storage.

 

Royal Jelly

 

The quantity and quality of the food given to a larva while it is developing will determine its caste. Consequently, a fertilized egg can be made into either a queen or a worker depending on the type of cell it inhabits and the type of food it is fed. The food of the queen is called 'royal jelly'. It is produced from the hypo pharyngeal glands in the heads of the worker bees that are nursing the queen larva, and differs from worker brood food in containing more mandibular gland secretions and a higher sugar content (34%) with a different spectrum of sugars.

Royal jelly is a whitish, homogenous substance with a paste-like consistency; its principal components are water, protein, lipids and mineral salts. All the amino acids required for human nutrition are present along with a number of enzymes, vitamins and numerous minor compounds.

The idea that, while the worker bees live for only a few weeks, the queen lives for several years, is likely to have generated the myth that royal jelly has similar effects on people. The fact that workers are sterile while the queen is fertile may similarly have contributed to people's belief in its aphrodisiac qualities. There is little scientific data either supporting or disproving claims made for royal jelly but commercial sales interest will quickly exploit consumer imagination. In its unprocessed state the taste is not particularly pleasant, being often quite bitter or sour. However, this may even enhance its medicinal reputation.

Royal jelly is always fed directly to queen larvae and is never stored, so it has never become a traditional beekeeping product. Commercial royal jelly production relates to the food intended for queen bee larvae that are 4-5 days old. Only about 250 mgs of royal jelly will be present in a single queen cell so harvesting significant quantities for human consumption requires large scale queen rearing which can really only be done using frame hives. It is easiest to sell royal jelly in its fresh state. However, it does not keep well in this form so for non-local sales it needs to be frozen or freeze-dried to allow long term storage and processing into consumer products. For the majority of commercial usage and sales, royal jelly needs to be in the freeze-dried form which requires significant investment in equipment. China accounts for the bulk of world production, estimated at 450 tons, while the health food and cosmetics markets in Japan, USA and Europe provide the main consumers.

Because of the very specialist skills demanded, the scale of the enterprise required for large scale queen rearing, the precise timing and the need for constant attendance on the queen cells, the difficulties in processing for both storage and sale, together with the levels of financial investment in industrial equipment required for commercial royal jelly production,  Bees for Development considers that royal jelly production is not a particularly suitable income-generating activity for alleviating poverty in most development circumstances. (Krell R., 1996)

Pollen

Pollen supplies protein to honeybees which is required for growth and reproduction. It also contains lipids, sterols, enzymes, vitamins and minerals, sugar, starch and cellulose. The chemical constitution of each type of pollen is widely variable and it is likely that honeybees require pollen from a range of floral sources to satisfy their nutritional needs.

Pollen is carried back to the hive on the third pair of legs of the honeybee, which is specially modified for this purpose. Pollen is moistened with saliva and nectar to make a small pellet, or pollen load, which is carried back to the hive to be stored. Only a tiny amount can be carried back to the colony at each trip (around 10 mgs per load) and bees need 20 kilograms for their annual development. It is clear that this constitutes a remarkable feat of social co-ordination by the bees - in fact this takes 1.3 million pollen collecting trips for the colony every year. Pollen is mixed with enzymes and nectar in a way that allows it to be stored by the bees for a considerable time.

Each plant has distinctively shaped pollen grain. Many plants have a characteristic color and this, combined with the time of year it is collected, can be used to give an initial indication about the source of the pollen. 

Measurement of grain size and examination of other features can be used to identify pollen grains under the microscope. This technique, known as melissopalynology, is most usually used to check the source of the honey to ensure consumers are not being misled about where the honey comes from.

People sometimes use pollen as a health food because of its rich source of protein, enzymes, vitamins and minerals. The pollen is collected from the bee by using a specially designed pollen trap placed at the entrance of the hive. This removes the pollen loads from the bees' legs as they enter the hive causing it to fall into a collecting box. Pollen trapping cannot be done for prolonged periods as loss of their protein source has serious consequences for the health of the honeybee colony.

However, dust and spores may be collected as well as pollen, so collecting pollen for human consumption needs to be done with care. Poorly handled pollen has great potential for becoming mouldy and possibly toxic. Good sorting and freeze-drying facilities need to be available for pollen collection to be a viable business possibility.

Bees need pollen for:

• Protein synthesis
• Brood food for larval and queen growth
• Bee bread for larval growth
• Fat bodies for surviving dearth periods
• Wax secretion
• Venom production

Conclusion

The products of the honey bee have great value in economic return as well as health matters. The honey bee keeping can give us the diversified products. The most important part of the honey bee work is the pollination which is ignored by Nepalese farmers with layman thinking. The 80% pollination the crop is done by honey bee. The pollination by honey bee has increase the crop production. The other products of the honey bee are helping in earning a good return. The most precious, more costly and highly medicinal value product is Royal jelly produced by honey bees. Wax, pollen, propolis are other products of honey bee. The treatment through Apitherapy is being popular nowadays which help in the curing in problem of respiration, blood pressure and rheumatism.

Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer (BSFB)(Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee)

Introduction

Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer (BSFB) is a monophagous pest (feeds only on Brinjal). It is very important pest on brinjal owing to its feeding habit. By habit, it is an internal borer which damages the tender shoots and fruits. The normal reactive measures like spraying pesticides do not solve the problem. The usage of highly systemic poisons at a very high frequency that makes the vegetables poisonous, ecologically unsafe and economically unviable. This excessive pesticide usage threatens the health of farmers and consumers, besides making eggplant fruit more costly to consumers. In the meantime, the insect is becoming tolerant to the chemicals, making it more difficult to control. But if we understand the nature and behavior of each life stage of the cycle, it is easy to replace poisonous chemicals with knowledge, local resources and skills. Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (BSFB) (Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee) is a major insect pest of brinjal in Asia, which causes serious damage especially during the fruiting stage. The percent  fruit  infestation  caused  by  the  pest  reached  up  to  90.86%  (Rahman,  1997). Various insects  cause enormous losses to this vegetable throughout the  season in Bangladesh as well as in Indian sub- continent (Alam, 1969 and Dhankar, 1988), among them brinjal shoot and fruit borer (BSFB),  Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee, is the most serious and  destructive one. Due to the attack of this pest considerable damage is occurred each year affecting the quality and yield of the crop. Only the larvae of this pest cause 12-16 % damage to shoots and 20-60% to fruits (Alam, 1970; Maureal et al., 1982). The pest is very active during the rainy and summer season and often causes more than 90% damage (Ali et al., 1980; Kalloo, 1988). The yield loss has been estimated up to 86% (Ali et al., 1980) in Bangladesh and up to 95% (Naresh et al., 1986) in India.

Distribution

L. orbonalis is reported from regions of aubergine cultivation in Africa, south of the Sahara, and South-East Asia, including China and the Philippines. In South Asia it is widely spread in Bangladesh and India. A little presence in Nepal is found.

Host Range

Major hosts: Solanum melongena (aubergine), Solanum tuberosum (potato)

Minor hosts: Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Pisum sativum var. arvense (Austrian winter pea), Solanum indicum, Solanum myriacanthum, Solanum torvum (turkey berry)

Wild hosts: Solanum gilo (gilo), Solanum nigrum (black nightshade)

Morphology

Eggs - Creamy white egg

Larva - Pink in color

Pupa- Grayish boat shaped cocoon

Adults are white with a characteristic wing pattern. The wing span of the adult is 18-24 mm. Forewing is antemedian field brown, the median field with a large brown patch near the inner margin, reniform stigma brown. In the postmedian field, a black patch is present near the apex. A black patch is on the cross-vein of the cell in hind wing. Postmedian line diffuse, black with some black spots in the postmedian field.

Biology

Egg. Adult females lay eggs on the foliage (Figure 1). The number of eggs laid by an average female varies from 80 to 253. Oviposition takes place during the night and eggs are laid singly on the lower surface of the young leaves, green stems, flower buds, or calyces of the fruits. Eggs are flattened, elliptical, and 0.5 mm in diameter. They are creamy-white soon after they are laid, but change to red before hatching. Eggs hatch in 3 to 6 days. Prabhat Kumar and Johnsen (2000) found that adults were most active between 02.00 and 06.00 h. Most of the feeding, mating and egg laying occurred during this period, which lasted about 16 minutes. Eggs were laid in the early hours of the morning, singly or in batches on the ventral surface of the leaves.

Larva. Soon after hatching from eggs, young caterpillars search for and bore into tender shoots near the growing point, into flower buds, or into the fruits. Caterpillars prefer fruits over other plant parts. Larvae go through at least five instars (Atwal, 1976) and there are reports of the existence of six larval instars. Larval period lasts 12 to 15 days in the summer and up to 22 days in the winter. (Prabhat Kumar and Johnsen, 2000) A total of six larval instars have been recorded. Climatic conditions are important in the life cycle of the borer. As temperature increases and humidity decreases, fecundity increases and the duration of the life-cycle decreases. The larval period was the longest, followed by pupal and egg stages. Sandanayake and Edirisinghe (1992) studied the larval distribution on mature eggplant in Sri Lanka. They found first instars in flower buds and flowers, second instars in all susceptible plant parts, third and fourth instars in shoots and fruits, and fifth instars mostly in fruits. Larval feeding in fruit and shoot is responsible for the damage to eggplant crop. A full-grown larva measures 18 to 23 mm in length.

Pupa. Mature larvae come out of their feeding tunnels and pupate in tough silken cocoons among the fallen leaves and other plant debris on the soil surface near the base of eggplant plants. The color and texture of the cocoon matches the surroundings making it difficult to detect (Figure 1). Some studies indicate the presence of cocoons at soil depths of 1 to 3 cm. The pupal period lasts 6 to 17 days depending upon temperature.

Adult. Moths come out of pupal cocoons at night. Young adults are generally found on the lower leaf surfaces following emergence. EFSB females are slightly bigger than males. The abdomen of the female moth tends to be pointed and curl upwards, whereas the male moth possesses a blunt abdomen. The moth is white but has pale brown or black spots on the dorsum of thorax and abdomen. Wings are white with a pinkish or bluish tinge and are ringed with small hairs along the apical and anal margins. The forewings are ornamented with a number of black, pale, and light brown spots. The moth measures 20 to 22 mm across the spread of wings. Longevity of adults was 1.5 to 2.4 days for males and 2.0 to 3.9 days for females. The pre- Oviposition and Oviposition periods were 1.2 to 2.1 and 1.4 to 2.9 days, respectively (Mehto et al., 1983).

Baang and Corey (1991) reported six larval instars in the Philippines. The egg, larval and pupal periods were 6, 15 and 11.5 days, respectively; the average longevity of males and females was 4 and 7.5 days, respectively.

Mehto et al. (1983) reported that in India the egg, larval and pupal periods were 5.4, 17.5 and 9.8 days, respectively; the lifespan of adult males and females was 1.5-2.4 and 2.0-3.9 days, respectively. The number of eggs produced per female ranged from 84.5 in January to 253.5 in May.

In Ghana, the young larvae bore into young axillary shoots causing wilting. They enter the fruits and plug the small entrance holes with excreta. Fruits contain up to 20 larvae (Frempong, 1979).

Sandanayake et al. (1992a) determined the larval instars by measuring the size of the head capsules; they also studied larval distribution on aubergine in Sri Lanka. First-instars larvae were found in flower buds and flowers; second-instars larvae were present in all susceptible parts of the plant; larvae were confined to the shoots and fruits in the third and fourth instars; and fifth-instars larvae were found only in the fruits.

Nature of Damage

Bore Hole

Within one hour after hatching, EFSB larva bores into the nearest tender shoot, flower, or fruit. Soon after boring into shoots or fruits, they plug the entrance hole with excreta. In young plants, caterpillars are reported to bore inside petioles and midribs of large leaves. As a result, the affected leaves may drop off (Butani and Jotwani, 1984).

Presence of wilted shoots in an eggplant field is the surest sign of damage by this pest. The damaged shoots ultimately wither and drop off. This reduces plant growth, which in turn, reduces fruit number and size. New shoots can arise but this delays crop maturity and the newly formed shoots are also subject to larval damage.

Larval feeding in flowers—a relatively rare occurrence—results in failure to form fruit from damaged flowers. The feeding tunnels are often clogged with frass. This makes even slightly damaged fruit unfit for marketing. The yield loss varies from season to season and from location to location. Damage to the fruits in India, particularly in autumn, is very severe and the whole crop can be destroyed (Atwal, 1976). EFSB is active throughout the year at places having moderate climate but its activity is adversely affected by severe cold. EFSB is practically monophagous, feeding principally on eggplant; however, other plants belonging to family Solanaceae are reported to be hosts of this pest. They include tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), selected nightshades (S. nigrum and S. indicum), and turkey berry (S. torvum).

Management

Cultural Method

Collection, destruction of dried shoot tips and bored fruits on campaign basis in an area is an efficient method because the larvae tend to pupate (transform into pupa and takes rest) in the plant residues itself. Burning of the infested parts and composting the crop remains is useful in preventing the buildup of the moth populations in a given area. After the final harvest, the old plants should be uprooted and burned promptly because they may harbor EFSB larvae which could become a source of future infestation. In West Bengal, India, Karmakar and Bhattacharya (2000) showed that the pest population can be maintained at well below the economic injury level (0-11.75 L. orbonalis Guen. /plot) using mechanical methods of control.

Crop rotation is beneficial as the insect survives only on brinjal. Avoid continuous cropping of brinjal crop. Intercropping brinjal with other crops like cowpea, maize, coriander should be done which improve the natural habitat for natural enemies (like spiders, lace wings, ladybirds etc) against the pest. Intercropping coriander with aubergine may be useful in IPM programmes against L. orbonalis by reducing fruit infestation and the amount of insecticide used by farmers (Khorsheduzzaman et al., 1997).

Erection of barrier around the field plot is one of the methods to control borer infestation. The net barrier is made 2-3 m height around the plot. This method restricts the movement of adult BSFB and eventually reduces the infestation. The use of the barrier along with sanitation reduces the shoot damage to an average of 62.7% compare to other without this practice (Alam et al., 2003).

Host-Plant Resistance

Several varieties of aubergine have been evaluated for resistance against infestation by L. orbonalis. Resistance in varieties SM 17-4, PBR 129-5 and Punjab Barsatiby was attributed to a large number of small fruits per plant with shorter inter/intracluster distance, late fruiting and a longer fruiting period (Dilbagh-Singh et al., 1991). Biochemical characters, such as total sugars and free amino acids, were positively correlated with fruit infestation, and polyphenol content was negatively correlated with attack (Darekar et al., 1991). Bajaj et al. (1989) suggested that the presence of glycoalkoids in association with phenolic compounds was responsible for the resistance in variety SM-17-4.

In Himachal Pradesh, India, Chaudhary and Sharma (2000) found that the aubergine variety Arka Kesav had a fruit borer incidence of 2.88 compared to 5.64 in variety SM 6-6.

The highly resistant aubergine variety, Sm-202, had tightly arranged seeds in the mesocarp (Lal, 1991). Mishra et al. (1988) attributed resistance in long-fruited varieties to thick fruit skin and closely packed vascular bundles in the pulp.

In Tamilnadu, India, Thangamani et al.( 2011) found that  the hybrid COBH-1 is the only hybrid with the highest marketable fruit yield per plant with the lowest fruit borer infestation. Two hybrids viz., COBH-1 and KBHL-3 of SAU’s and the three F1 hybrids evolved from ICAR institutes Viz., Pusa Hybrid-5, DBHL-14 and IVBHL-54 and the Private Institutes hybrids Viz., ARBH-785 and PK-123 possess higher marketable fruit yield per plant.

Hossain M. et al. (2002) reported that the brinjal shoot and fruit borer infestations for different varieties/lines were found in the following order of intensity: Nayankajal> BL095> BL085> BL098> BLO114> Khotkhotia-2> Berka> Laffa> lslampuri> BL045> Ohohazari-2> BL0101> Ohohazari-1> Khotkhotia-1> BL096> Sada ball> Singnath> Uttara> Baromashi> Jhumki.

Biological Control

Several parasitoids and predators of EFSB are prevalent in the eggplant fields in South and Southeast Asian countries. The most notable parasitoid is Trathala flavoorbitalis a tiny wasp that is harmless to humans. This wasp lays its eggs in EFSB larvae. The eggs hatch into wasp larvae that eat the EFSB larva they were laid into.

Predators
Campyloneura sp (a bug), Cheilomenes sexmaculata (a ladybird beetle), Coccinella septempunctata (seven spotted ladybird beetle), Brumoides suturalis (three striped ladybird)

Parasitoids
Pseudoperichaeta sp, Phanerotoma sp, Itamoplex sp, Eriborus argenteopilosus, Diadegma apostata

Entomopathogens
Fungus (Bipolaris tetramera), Baculovirus, Nuclear polyhedrosis virus

Spray Bacillus thuriengiensis var kurstaki @ 1500 ml/ ha (750 lit of spray fluid)

Release egg parasitoid: Trichogramma chilonis @ 50,000/ ha, four times from 30 DAT

Chemical Control

Insecticides are currently the main method of control for L. orbonalis. Contact insecticides are the most commonly used and show varying degrees of efficacy against the pest. Deltamethrin and endosulfan were the most effective insecticides used in South Asia (Thanki and Patel, 1991).

In field experiments conducted in Andra Pradesh, India, triazophos and methomyl were applied when >20% of aubergine fruits were infested; highest fruit yields and return were obtained with triazophos (Radhika et al., 1997).

From the survey done in Orissa, India (Babu et al.,2002) it is found that the most commonly used insecticide in the field was carbaryl, followed by endosulfan, carbofuran and cypermethrin. In the nursery, however, majority of the farmers (81.4%) did not follow any control measures, and only 13.00% of the farmers used carbaryl spray. Majority of the farmers (41.7%) followed a 7- to 8-day spraying, and nearly 30% followed a 9- to 12-day spraying.

Spray endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit + neem oil 2ml/lit, Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1ml/lit + neem oil 2ml/lit, Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5 %

Sharma and Chhibber (1999) tested deltamethrin, endosulfan and neem oil against L. orbonalis in India. Six sprays of Deltamethrin was the most economical treatment and neem oil treatment was the least economical. Kumar and Babu (1998) compared two commercial neem formulations against each other and against endosulfan. A 5% Azadirachtin treatment showed more ovipositional deterrent effects than a 1% formulation of endosulfan. However, endosulfan was superior with respect to ovicidal effects.

A combination of cypermethrin/deltamethrin and triazophos/endosulfan sometimes combined with cartap hydrochloride and diflubenzuron gave higher yields than non-treated plots; cypermethrin/deltamethrin mixtures were most effective Kumar et al., 2000, 2001; Biradar et al., 2001).

(Latif M.A. et al., 2006) A field experiment at Bangladesh revealed  that  spraying  of  flubendiamide  at  2%  shoot  +  2%  fruit infestation  against  the  brinjal  shoot  and  fruit  infestation  reduced  the  shoot  and  fruit infestation,  increased  the  marketable  healthy  fruit  yield  of  brinjal.  On  the  other  hand, flubendiamide  spray  at 5%  fruit  infestation gave  the similar  results  for yield of brinjal but reduced the number of insecticide application and increased about 2.5 times higher BCR. This would have positive  impact on environment,  reduce  toxic  residue  load on brinjal fruits and finally  the  cost  of  control measure would  be minimized  significantly. Therefore,  5%  fruit infestation  may  be  considered  as  the  best  threshold  for  application  of  flubendiamide  in managing the brinjal shoot and fruit borer of brinjal.

Pheremonal Control

Sex pheromones can be used to trap male EFSB moths. A 2-3 mg pheromone sample contained in porous plastic tube, when baited in a suitable trap and placed in the field, can attract male moths continuously for up to 6 weeks.

It is the smell of the pheromone seeping from the lure tube that attracts male EFSB moths. They enter the trap, fly around the lure, and fall into the soapy water and die. It is important that the soapy water inside the trap is replenished often to make sure the trap is never dry, or else the moths will not be killed. This trap can last at least one season.

No matter what type of pheromone trap is used, the lure tube should always be kept closed. Pheromone chemical seeps slowly and uniformly from this tube. Traps should be erected in the field starting 3-4 weeks after transplanting until the last harvest. A distance of 10-15 m should be maintained between traps in the field. The traps are hanged in such a way that the lure is just above the plant canopy. This will require that the traps be moved higher as plants grow taller.

Cork et al. (2001) optimized different blends of the female sex pheromone in West Bengal, India. Blends containing 1 and 10% E11-16/OH caught more male L.orbonalis than E11-16Ac alone. Different trap structures were evaluated in the study.

Chatterjee H. (2009) developed module with three components i.e. pheromone trap, timely mechanical control and application of azadex (neem based insecticides), which was found most effective in reduction of shoot damage (76.59%) followed by the farmer's practice (i.e. twenty times application of insecticides) (76.36%).

IPM

Islam et al. (1999) investigated the management of L. orbonalis using insecticides applied at 10% action threshold level (ATL) and at the peak of adult emergence (POAE), and by applying mechanical control which resulted in the reduced applications (4-7) compared to scheduled sprays (16) and reduce the fruit damages. The benefit cost ratio (BCR) (12-15) was about three times lower than in the ATL and POAE treated plots (28-38). A hymenopterous parasitoid wasp of L. orbonalis was less affected in the IPM intervention plots than in the scheduled spray plots.

Sasikala et al. (1999) compared the efficacy of ecologically friendly methods of control in Bapatla, India. Treatments included neem seed kernel extract, neem oil, Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki, lufenuron, carbaryl, combination treatments, mechanical removal and the destruction of infested shoots and fruits, and release of the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum. Mechanical destruction of infested shoots and fruits, neem oil and the release of T. japonicum gave good control of L. orbonalis compared to the control. Plots treated with neem oil, neem oil + Bt, neem oil+ lufenuron, and neem oil + carbaryl gave higher fruit yield than the untreated control plots.

Chakraborti (2001) assessed the effectiveness of a biorational integrated approach for the management of aubergine Pusa Purple Cluster L. orbonalis using the application of fresh neem cake in the nursery at land preparation, every 30 days after transplanting, foliar application of neem seed kernel extracts at 7-day intervals beginning 30 days after transplanting, root zone application of benzene once every 30 days after transplanting, clipping and destruction of infested plant parts, and a single application of carbofuran 30 days after transplanting. A low mean shoot and fruit infestation (4.92 and 5.32%, respectively) was recorded with this treatment whereas the chemical method, failed to afford adequate protection and recorded 20.42 and 25.24% mean shoot and fruit infestation, respectively.

Sudhakar et al. (1998) studied the influence of fertilizers and insecticides on the damage potential of L. orbonalis. A higher dose of potash along with the chemical treatments carbaryl + dicofol, malathion and bifenthrin were effective against L. orbonalis; the percentage of aubergines damaged on a weight basis was also low in these treatments. A lower dose of potash resulted in higher shoot (14.4%) and fruit (44.3%) infestation, on a par with the control. The highest marketable fruit yields, 7.7 and 6.7 t/ha, were recorded with bifenthrin and the higher dose of potash, respectively. Lowest marketable fruit yields, 1.6 and 2.1 t/ha, were obtained in plots treated with neem cake and vermicompost.

Naitam and Mali (2001) used combinations of insecticide mixtures and natural enemies in the field. The highest cost benefit ratio (1:9.95) was recorded in a treatment of B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki + monocrotophos. Rabinda and Prasad (2001) found significant suppression of L. orbonalis when aubergine was grown in association with either marigold (Tagetus erecta) or okra (Abelmosschus esculentus) in Bihar, India.

Removal and destruction of twigs/fallen leaves twice in a week + Bt @ 0.5 kg/ha showed minimum infestation of shoot (1.23 and 1.13%) and fruits (1.10 and 0.90%) and produced maximum healthy fruits over rest of the treatments in managing the shoot and fruit borer infestation is followed by neem gold @ 2 mill + mechanical removal (T1). Cypermethrin @ 0.016% and imidacloprid @ 0.015% were found next effective treatment in order of efficacy (Ghanand T., 2002).